However, the late medieval Black Death is sometimes seen not as the start of the second, but as the end of the first pandemic – in that case, the second pandemic's start would be 1361; also vary the end dates of the second pandemic given in literature, e.g. ~1890 instead of ~1840.
[17]
[edit]First Pandemic: Early Middle Ages (Plague of Justinian)
The
Plague of Justinian in AD 541–542 is the first known attack on record, and marks the first firmly recorded pattern of bubonic plague. This disease is thought to have originated in China.
[20] It then spread to Africa from where the huge city of
Constantinople imported massive amounts of grain, mostly from Egypt, to feed its citizens. The grain ships were the source of contagion for the city, with massive public granaries nurturing the rat and flea population. At its peak the plague was killing 10,000 people in Constantinople every day and ultimately destroyed perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants. It went on to destroy up to a quarter of the human population of the eastern Mediterranean.
In AD 588 a second major wave of plague spread through the Mediterranean into what is now France. It is estimated that the
Plague of Justinian killed as many as
100 millionpeople across the world.
[21][22] It caused
Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700.
[23] It also may have contributed to the success of the
Arab conquests.
[24][25] An outbreak of it in the AD 560s was described in AD 790 as causing "swellings in the glands ... in the manner of a nut or date" in the groin "and in other rather delicate places followed by an unbearable fever". While the swellings in this description have been identified by some as buboes, there is some contention as to whether the pandemic should be attributed to the bubonic plague,
Yersinia pestis, known in modern times.
[26]
[edit]Second Pandemic: from 14th century (Black Death) to 19th century
Map showing the spread of the Black Death (bubonic plague) in
Europe during the 1347–1351
pandemic which is believed to have started in
China and spread west, reaching the
Black Seaby 1347
From 1347 to 1351, the
Black Death, a massive and deadly
pandemic originating in China, spread along the
Silk Road and swept through Asia, Europe and Africa.
[20] It may have reduced the world's population from
450 million to between 350 and
375 million.
[27] Chinalost around half of its population, from around
123 million to around
65 million;
Europearound 1/3 of its population, from about
75 million to about
50 million; and
Africaapproximately 1/8 of its population, from around
80 million to
70 million (mortality rates tended to be correlated with population density so Africa, being less dense overall, had the lowest death rate). This makes the Black Death the largest death toll from any known non-viral epidemic. Although accurate statistical data does not exist, it is thought that 1.4 million died in England (1/3 of England's 4.2 million people), while an even higher percentage of Italy's population was likely wiped out. On the other hand, Northeastern Germany, Bohemia, Poland and Hungary are believed to have suffered less, and there are no estimates available for Russia or the Balkans. It is conceivable that Russia may not have been as affected due to its very cold climate and large size, hence often less close contact with the contagion.
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.
[28] According to Biraben, plague was pre1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667; subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century).
[30] According to Geoffrey Parker, "
France alone lost almost a million people to plague in the epidemic of 1628–31."
[31]
In England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of preincident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300,
[32] and a postincident population figure as low as 2 million.
[33] By the end of 1350, the Black Death subsided, but it never really died out in England. Over the next few hundred years, further outbreaks occurred in 1361–62, 1369, 1379–83, 1389–93, and throughout the first half of the 15th century.
[34] An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10–15% of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479–80 could have been as high as 20%.
[35] The most general outbreaks in
Tudor and
Stuart England seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625, and 1636, and ended with the
Great Plague of London in 1665.
[36]
Plague Riot in Moscow in 1771: During the course of the
city's plague, between 50,000 and 100,000 died (1/6 to 1/3 of its population).
In 1466, perhaps 40,000 people died of plague in Paris.
[37] During the 16th and 17th centuries, plague visited Paris for almost one year out of three.
[38] The Black Death ravaged Europe for three years before it continued on into Russia, where the disease hit somewhere once every five or six years from 1350 to 1490.
[39] Plague epidemics ravaged London in 1563, 1593, 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665,
[40]reducing its population by 10 to 30% during those years.
[41] Over 10% of
Amsterdam's population died in 1623–1625, and again in 1635–1636, 1655, and 1664.
[42] There were 22 outbreaks of plague in
Venice between 1361 and 1528.
[43] The plague of 1576–1577 killed 50,000 in Venice, almost a third of the population.
[44] Late outbreaks in central Europe included the
Italian Plague of 1629–1631, which is associated with troop movements during the
Thirty Years' War, and the
Great Plague of Vienna in 1679. Over 60% of Norway's population died from 1348 to 1350.
[45] The last plague outbreak ravaged
Oslo in 1654.
[46]
In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy, or about 14% of the population.
[47] In 1656, the plague killed about half of
Naples' 300,000 inhabitants.
[48] More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century
Spain.
[49] The
plague of 1649 probably reduced the population of
Seville by half.
[50] In 1709–1713, a
plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721,
Sweden v. Russia and allies)
[51] killed about 100,000 in Sweden,
[52] and 300,000 in Prussia.
[50] The plague killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of
Helsinki,
[53] and claimed a third of
Stockholm's population.
[54] Western Europe's last major epidemic
occurred in 1720 in Marseilles,
[45] in Central Europe the last major outbreaks happened during
the plague during the Great Northern War, and in Eastern Europe during the
Russian plague of 1770-1772
Worldwide distribution of plague-infected animals 1998
The Black Death ravaged much of the
Islamic world.
[55] Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850.
[56] Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa.
Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 to it in 1620–21, and again in 1654–57, 1665, 1691, and 1740–42.
[57] Plague remained a major event in
Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in
Constantinople, and 31 between 1751 and 1800.
[58]Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.
[59]
What is now Calumet was settled in 1864, originally under the name of "Red Jacket",[5]named for a Native American Chief of the Seneca tribe. Until 1895 the name "Calumet" was used by the nearby town of Laurium, Michigan; present day Calumet was not legally named so until 1929.
Loss of wartime demand caused the copper price to drop following World War I. With the decreased demand for copper, thousands left Red Jacket in the 1920s, many moving toDetroit, Michigan where the automobile industry was booming. 
The Calumet Historic District is another area of interest, listed like the Calumet Downtown Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places.
